Ecological Crisis: A Functionalist And Conflict Perspective
Abstract
When people talk about ecological crisis, they often concentrate on the economic and political effects of human population on the environment; most of the writers do not consider the deep lying roots of social responsibility as a factor that influences the state of the environment. This paper employs sociological theory in unravelling these factors that lead to the environmental degradation, and the implications of these environmental issues on society. This paper uses sociological theories to examine the interactions between the environment and society in general. The functionalists identify oil spillage, desertification, gas flaring, deforestation and sea erosion as the causes of ecological crisis; on the other hand, conflict theorist believe the unequal distribution of resources around the world as the main reason why people face environmental issues. In order to fight this environmental issues, the government, multinational corporations (especially oil companies), and the society in general, need to address these issues before the crisis becomes uncontrollable.
ECOLOGICAL CRISIS: A FUNCTIONALIST AND CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE
Introduction and Background
In recent days, it is common knowledge that world peace is not only threatened by regional conflicts, military arms, diseases and continued injustices among nations and people, but also due to people’s lack of respect for nature. In the words of Nobel Prize winner Wangari Maathai (1940-2011), a progressive and nature preservation activist, “If we do not protect nature, nature will destroy us”. Scholars and writers often write about the economic, political and social implications of pollution in the environment; demographers also consider the implications of an increasing population and urbanization on the environment (Hughes et al., 1989: 424-425); this paper, however, considers the interaction between humans, organizations, technology and their environment.
The environment is a habitat for animals and man; if it is not well taken care of, it becomes inhabitable and unable to sustain the growing population. Unlike the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the mortality rate has reduced to the advancements in medicine; however, these advancements in technology and need for better and luscious lifestyles gave rise to desserts, melting icecaps, overpopulation in urban areas, death of wildlife and hunger and poverty. Ecologists and agricultural specialists focus on trying to restore land altered and destroyed by human activity. Ecologists believe in the protection of the ecosystem and the importance of conservation biology in preserving species and waste-land restoration (Dobson et al., 1997: 515-522)
Most scholars who explore the interaction between the environment and society fail to pin-point the bigger picture, the finer details about ecological crisis; the sociological theories clearly present details of what people take for granted about social life, that are leading causes of issues such as global warming and the greenhouse effect (Berger 1963).
Objective of the Study
When considering issues about environmental degradation, it is important to consider the implications of human activity on the environment; the problem statement and the objective of this paper, therefore, explores how sociological theory uncovers the interactions between the environment and society. The study employs theoretical perspectives, which act are frameworks that enables the reader to visualize and understand the themes in this paper.
Literature Review
The Functionalist Theory
Functionalism is one of the major theories in sociology; perhaps the most accepted attribute of functionalism is the functionalists’ position that no human behavior, custom or institution exists in vaccuo; in an ecosystem, the elements must interact for , and they do so interdependently at many different levels (Spencer 1968: 13). The themes of functionalism originated from the works of Emile Durkheim, whose main interest was how a social system maintains its stability.
Functionalism interprets the society as different fragments, mechanism, processes, structures and functions; all of which have a role to play in the stability of society. Emile Durkheim cites that one of the most unique features of functionalism is its portrayal of the social system as being in a state of balance, or equilibrium among its components and the forces that affect the system (Anderson and Taylor, 2009).
Ecological Crisis: The Functionalist Theory
Functionalism offers major insights in explaining the issues in ecological crisis; however, it has the following drawbacks: it exaggerates stability, integration and consensus; it usually has a problem with change and dealing with history and; it disregards conflict, instability and dissent. Despite these drawbacks, functionalism is very useful in identifying the structural components of society and in describing society. It enables scholars to see the “bigger picture” of social life especially the recurrent behavioral; it expresses patterns of recurrent behavior and patterned institutions.
Functionalism approaches the ecological environment by examining the interactions between the various components of the ecosystem (Faia, 1989: 658-660). According to the functionalists, the ecosystem tends to sustain itself in a state of equilibrium; the components maintain a balanced and delicate relationship with one another. Functionalists stress that, in order to survive, it is essential to maintain a precarious balance between the non-living components (biosphere included) of the ecosystem and the living components of the system (Hughes, 1989: 425).
The Middle East and Africa are some of the most draught stricken regions due to the growing deserts in this regions. In Africa for example, much of the desertification is not caused by basic climate change alone, but also due to the increased use of marginal land for cultivation, grassing and as sources of charcoal and firewood. According to Tucker et al. (1991: 299-301), the adoption of deep plowing and the use of chemical fertilizers worsens the environmental degradation situation. Irrigated land in sub-Saharan regions becomes waterlogged, accumulates salt and loses its agricultural viability. People in these regions tend to congregate in areas close to wells, overpopulating and overgrazing the area, thereby trampling the ground reducing its viability.
The most implicit impacts of desertification is widespread poverty and degradation of large pieces of land. Deserts are harsh environment to live in; human-induced deserts ameliorate the attempts of the global organization to control climate change; it is, therefore, the role of society to actively participate in actions that aid in combating economic crisis. Structural functionalism, therefore, explains how a change in one component of the social system affects all the other components of the social system. Environmentalists predict that by 2020, over 50 million people worldwide will be environmental refugees; people who will have migrated due to lack of a viable environment to secure a livelihood.
In Nigeria and the oil producing companies art the Niger-Delta are a good example of the interaction between the environment and the people; the various oil companies in this region and in other oil producing regions contribute to environmental pollution especially plant and aquatic life. Economically, the amelioration of these pollution effects costs the government a lot of money; it is common knowledge that when state funds are involved, politics plays a major role in this process.
Other activities such as the use of diesel and other fossil fuels, use of air fresheners and factory effluents contribute to environmental degradation. According to the functionalist theory, human beings should become more aware both latent (unintended and unrecognized by the components in the system) consequences, and manifest (intended and recognized by the components in the system) consequences of their deeds on the environment. Such precaution fosters a state of equilibrium and balance, where all components coexist in harmony.
The Conflict Theory
According to Anderson and Taylor (2009), conflict theory stresses on the role of power and coercion in producing social order. Karl Marx saw society as consisting of various fragments that have to compete for economic resources in order to survive; Hughes (1999: 60), also supports this assumption by Marx, stating that wealth, power and prestige are always in limited supply; for one to gain these resources, other people in the system have to suffer loss.
Social order becomes the result of domination by those who possess an excess of social, economic and political resources. Power, therefore, determines who gains and who loses in a social system. According to this theory, inequality exists in a social system due to the selfish and individualistic acts of those in power. People in a social system become the subjects of coercion from those in power, for social order and social bonds to exist. Conflict theory therefore, studies the technicalities of how some groups gain power, how they dominate others, affecting the will of other people in a social system (Anderson and Taylor, 2009).
Ecological Crisis: The Conflict Theory
When it comes to conflict theory, society offers different opinions about different issues; conflict theory lacks a unified opinion. Environmental issues are therefore no different; some conflict theorist blame the unequal distribution off resources around the world for ecological crisis instead of the scarcity of resources. That is, they blame the people who fight to disproportionately acquire the available resources and not how much economic resource is available. Hughes (1989:425) cites that, the critical decisions affecting the environment do not favor the present and future generations, but rather, the individuals and groups that impose their will on the rest of society.
Conflict theorists divide people into two groups; those who favor the economy over the environment and; those who advocate for environmental protection over economic development. Though conflict theorists agree about many things, they sometimes come to different conclusions. In the case of desertification in African countries, conflict theorists do not blame desertification on the African people, but rather on the pressure from Western and European countries to produce cash crops for export rather than food crops for the natives. This might be due to the IMF and World Bank conditionality on granting funds to these third world countries.
According to a 1990 World Bank report, between the years of 1980 and 1987, African farmers only increased their food crop by 1.3%, which was less than half the increase in population. Later on, the price of cotton and other commodity prices fell simultaneously, making it difficult for the African nations to repay their debts to the IMF and World Bank. This only makes the African countries more reliant towards the donor nations, increasing the state debt; this only leads to exploitation of African nation by this donor countries. Financial assistance is only disbursed to those nations that “cooperate” with these donor nations (Farnsworth, 1990).
Most oil producing countries such as Nigeria in the coastal Niger delta have other minerals at their deltas that remain untapped due to greed by the rich and powerful; the coastal resources are vital for many indigenous locals; however, the wealthy in society destroy these heritage with construction of more oil plants, residence and other coastal infrastructure, thereby polluting the marine environment especially the fisheries. Marine life, especially fish and other food resources in the seas are the victims of oil spills in these coastal regions (Sumit, 1992: 139). The ocean is an essential and global life-support habitat which can also be used for recreational purposes; once polluted, aquatic life dies and the quality of life reduces.
There exists conflict between non-oil producing and oil-producing states in Nigeria due to mismanagement of resources. There also exists conflicts between the aviation industry and the environmental activists about the contribution of aircraft to air and noise pollution in the environment. According to Gosselin (2010), Canadian oil extractor Suncor, faces various law suits due to major oil spills on the Canadian soils; the company responded by launching clean energy projects and wind power projects to reduce environmental pollution. Boeing, an American aircraft manufacturing company, also faces concerns from environmental groups regarding aircraft carbon emissions and noise pollution; this has led to the recent developments in the aviation industry where fossil fuel is slowly being faced out by biodiesels and biofuels (Bowen 2011).
According to Conflict Theorists, expanding economic activities and other human requirements increases the pressure on land and its resources. This increases the conflict between the wealthy and the less fortunate resulting to social instability. These conflict have dire consequences on people since lives and property are lost in the process. In order to create a sustainable environment, it is necessary for the political economic and social forces to efficiently distribute economic resources among the various elements of the social system. Effective land use, resource management and planning are policies that can re-establish social order.
Methodology
This research employs qualitative methods in tackling the problem statement; an in-depth approach of how and why is used to define the relationships between the environment and the humans. These shows the role play human beings in environmental degradation and also why the consequences of their actions are as they appear. Qualitative methods also allows the research to draw empirical support for the research hypothesis and objectives.The qualitative methods used is the critical analysis of case studies in Africa, Canada and the U.S. The research is based on direct observations such as the recent demonstrations by moms in Colorado due to air pollution.
Conclusion
This paper shows that sociological perspectives can be used to analyze the interaction between people in society and the environment in general. In order to combat environmental degradation and mitigate ecological crisis, it is important for all the forces in a social system to work together in the effective use and distribution of resources. These includes; political, technological, social, legal and economic forces; if these forces work together in ensuring that human action is not only driven by profit, the environment will be a better place to live in.
References
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