Comparative Study of Indigenous Religions
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Introduction
Religion has played an immense role in the shaping of the lives of the human society, especially with regard to their relationships with each other, their beliefs, as well as the acceptable behavior. Taoism/Daoism and Confucianism, both of which were born in China are examples of religions. Tao/Daoism is used to underline “principle”, “path”, or “way” and may be seen in other religions and philosophies in China apart from Taoism (Oldstone-Moore, 2003). However, Tao in Taoism underlines something that doubles up both as the driving force and source of everything in existence (Oldstone-Moore, 2003). Confucianism, on the other hand, is usually categorized as a system of ethical and social philosophy and not a religion. This is especially considering its deficiency of deity and it beliefs pertaining to afterlife. In fact, Confucianism was established the institutions, transcendent ideals and social values of the conventional Chinese society on ancient religious foundations (Rainey et al, 2010). However, of particular interest are the beliefs that these two religions or promoted pertaining to life and death. While the two religions may have been different, it is evident that their beliefs were mainly aimed at promoting morality and moral living in the lives of the followers.
Both Taoism and Confucianism did not lay emphasis on the afterlife rather they emphasized on the current life. For both of them, the quality and length of one’s life on earth was determined by his actions. Taoism stated that the afterlife was incorporated in life, where human beings are of Tao when living and become of Tao again upon death (Chin, 2007). However, an individual is presumed to be closer to Tao with increased length of his life, with the eventual hope being that the individual will become immortal, achieve Tao and reach a deeper life. This deep life would only be achieved by individuals that were pure in thought and actions (Chin, 2007). This is the same case for Confucianism, which does not lay emphasis on life after death as an ultimate standard against which human beings would measure how successful their life on earth was (Rainey et al, 2010). For Confucius, human beings had too rudimentary understanding of life on earth to waste it on planning for afterlife that they comprehended even less. In essence, human beings had a duty to enhance the morality of their current lives (Rainey et al, 2010).
In addition, both Taoism and Confucianism underline the fact that the spirit survived after death. To Taoists, life does not start with birth, nor does it end with death. The soul continues living after the death of the physical body and simply migrates to another life, a process that is repeated until the achievement of Tao. The major and common goal amongst Taoists is the achievement of immortality and not the entry into a regular afterlife (Oldstone-Moore, 2003). The achievement of Tao necessitates that an individual eliminates impurities from his physical body and leads a good-hearted, moral and upright life. As much as Confucianism talks of a heaven thereafter, it does not underline a realm of everlasting reward for individuals that die in righteousness rather it is the highest spiritual presence that human beings know (Littlejohn, 2011). Retribution is extended to the individual soul as its existence continues in another form after its separation from the body upon the death of an individual (Kirkland, 2004). Retribution underlines the punishment meted on an individual for sins that he committed in his lifetime (Kirkland, 2004).
While both Taoism and Confucianism do not believe in heaven, they underline the fact that the nature of an individual’s soul after death is determined by his or her actions. For Taoists, the afterworld comes with suffering and blissful states. Taoists who strive to follow the way in the course of their lives are bound to become crucial ancestors, who not only help human beings on earth but are worshiped by them (Oldstone-Moore, 2003). Taoists who do not live a deeper life are to be cast out to the nine stages of Hell, which is a place for agony and purgatory. Confucianism, on the other hand, espouses that human beings become spirits after they die. The soul that survives the death of human body has the capacity to travel via space and depending on its status, would enjoy the sacrifices of the human beings (Littlejohn, 2011). However, this state would be achieved after an individual lived a life where he or she is in harmony with the cosmos, while the “ren” virtues are self-cultivated, as well as extended to other people (Littlejohn, 2011). The ‘ren’ power is the capacity to modify human beings from their ability to do bad and allow them to achieve their primary accomplishment, which is the power of human love and to do good.
On the same note, as much as the two religions did not make any insinuations pertaining to heaven, they had clear ideas as to the best manner of living one’s life and safeguarding a place in the afterlife. Taoism indicated that the earth and higher realm of the same was harboring spirits that could take account or record the transgressions of men and take away some years from their assigned term of life depending on the gravity and lightness of their offenses. This was one way of compelling human beings to lead righteous lives or rather align themselves with the cosmos or the universe as a whole (Rainey et al, 2010). It is worth noting, however, that Taoism did not incorporate the concept of heal as it saw morality as a man-made distinction. Taoism, in its country of origin, China, adopted aspects of other religions such as beliefs pertaining to Taoist hell that comes with numerous spirits and deities that punish sin in varied horrible ways (Rainey et al, 2010). In this case, it underlines the belief pertaining to the existence of Diyu, which is a purgatory place that only serves to punish, as well as renew spirits in readiness for their next incarnation.
Climbing trees that have sharp blades or being beheaded (Rainey et al, 2010). After the atonement of the soul and repentance for its deed, the soul would be cleansed of its memories and reborn in another form, which may entail further punishment. However, these punishments can be averted through leading upright lives. Confucianism, nevertheless, does not hold beliefs pertaining to the Hereafter, Hell or paradise, nor does it have any beliefs on resurrection. This, however, does not underline any notion pertaining to the existence of the soul after it has left the physical body. It is worth noting that Confucianism is primarily founded on living the physical life to the fullest and in line with the acceptable norms of morality, rather than paying attention to issues pertaining to the afterlife (Littlejohn, 2011). In addition, Confucianism underlined the view that death and life of human beings are determined by fate, while nobleness and wealth would be determined by heaven. The “heaven” stated in this case is not the conventional heaven that is somewhere above the globe where there are deities and angels and a Supreme Being, rather it is a state of being purified and immortal (Littlejohn, 2011). Nevertheless, an individual is required to fulfill his responsibility to the realization of the ideal pertaining to a harmonious society in his or her lifetime. Indeed, it is imperative that human beings consider giving testimonies pertaining to ways of heaving as their duty and responsibility (Littlejohn, 2011). It is the duty of heaven to strive to attain eternal movement, while gentlemen should concern themselves with making unrelenting efforts pertaining to continuous improvement.
In conclusion, religion has been one of the most fundamental parts of the human society. Indeed, it has played an immense role in the shaping of the lives of the human society, especially with regard to their relationships with each other, their beliefs, as well as the acceptable behavior. While Confucianism and Taoism may have been different, it is evident that their beliefs on life and death were mainly aimed at promoting morality and moral living in the lives of the followers. Both Taoism and Confucianism underline the fact that the spirit survived after death. Taoists believe that life does not start with birth, nor does it end with death, with the common goal amongst Taoists being the achievement of immortality and not the entry into a regular afterlife. Confucianism talks of a heaven that revolves around highest spiritual presence those human beings know rather than the realm of everlasting reward for individuals that die in righteousness.
References
Littlejohn, R. (2011). Confucianism: An introduction = Ru. London: I.B. Tauris.
Rainey, L. D., & Wiley InterScience (Online service). (2010). Confucius & Confucianism: The essentials. Chichester, West Sussex, U.K: Wiley-Blackwell.
Kirkland, R. (2004). Taoism: The enduring tradition. New York: Routledge.
Oldstone-Moore, J. (2003). Taoism: Origins, beliefs, practices, holy texts, sacred places. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Chin, A (2007). The Authentic Confucius: A Life of Thought and Politics. New York: Simon and Schuster
